WaterShed COnservation And Management

Wellcome to VII Semester Department of civil Engineering And This is Ac Vinoth C Batch

In My Point of View The Watershed Management


WHAT IS A WATERSHED?

A watershed can be defined as the drainage basin or catchment area of a particular stream or river. Simply put, it refers to the area from where the water to a particular drainage system, like a river or stream, comes from.


WHY WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT?

People and their environment are interdependent. Any change in the surrounding environment directly affects the people living therein. A degraded environment results in a degraded quality of life of the people. Thus efforts to reduce poverty and improve the standard of living of the people must aim at improving the environment they live in.
The environment does not recognize people determined administrative boundaries. A watershed provides a natural environmental unit for planning a developmental initiative.

WHAT IS WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT ?

Watershed development refers to the conservation, regeneration and the judicious use of all the resources - natural (land, water, plants, animals) and human - within a particular watershed. Watershed management tries to bring about the best possible balance in the environment between natural resources on the one side, and human and other living beings on the other.

COMPONENTS OF WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT:

Human Resource Development (Community Development)
• Soil and Land Management
• Water Management
• Crop Management
• Afforestation
• Pasture/Fodder Development
• Livestock Management
• Rural Energy Management
• Farm and non-farm value addition activities

All these components are interdependent and interactive.



WHY PEOPLE'S PARTICIPATION?

The environment is a living space on which the human community living within that area depends on for its livelihood. When the economic condition of a community deteriorates it leads to over-exploitation and degradation of natural resources which, in turn, further exacerbates poverty. It is thus necessary for people to see the relationship between their poverty and the degraded environment they live in.

Thus, just as human beings and their activities are the cause of environmental destruction, it is only they who can restore to health the ruined environment. Hence there can be no sustainable natural resources management unless it involves the participation of all the inhabitants of the concerned environment / area in an active manner.

Watershed management is the process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that affect the plant, animal, and human communities within a watershed boundary.Features of a watershed that agencies seek to manage include water supply, water quality, drainage, stormwater runoff, water rights, and the overall planning and utilization of watersheds. Landowners, land use agencies, stormwater management experts, environmental specialists, water use purveyors and communities all play an integral part in the management of a watershed.

Sources of pollution
In an agricultural landscape, common contributors to water pollution are nutrients and sediment which typically enter stream systems after rainfall washes them off poorly managed agricultural fields, called surface runoff, or flushes them out of the soil through leaching. These types of pollutants are considered nonpoint source pollution because the exact point where the pollutant originated cannot be identified. Such pollutants remain a major issue for water ways because the inability to trace their sources hinders any attempt to limit the pollution.[2] Point source pollution originates a specific point of contamination such as if a manure containment structure fails and its contents enter the drainage system.

In urban landscapes, issues of soil loss through erosion, from construction sites for example, and nutrient enrichment from lawn fertilizers exist. Point source pollution, such as effluent from wastewater treatment plants and other industries play a much larger role in this setting. Also, the greatly increased area of impervious surfaces, such as concrete, combined with modern storm drainage systems, allows for water and the contaminants that it can carry with it to exit the urban landscape quickly and end up in the nearest stream.

Controlling pollution
In agricultural systems, common practices include the use of buffer strips, grassed waterways, the reestablishment of wetlands, and forms of sustainable agriculture practices such as conservation tillage, crop rotation and intercropping. After certain practices are installed, it is important to continually monitor these systems to ensure that they are working properly in terms of improving environmental quality.

In urban settings, managing areas to prevent soil loss and control stormwater flow are a few of the areas that receive attention. A few practices that are used to manage stormwater before it reaches a channel are retention ponds, filtering systems and wetlands. It is important that stormwater is given an opportunity to infiltrate so that the soil and vegetation can act as a "filter" before the water reaches nearby streams or lakes. In the case of soil erosion prevention, a few common practices include the use of silt fences, landscape fabric with grass seed and hydroseeding. The main objective in all cases is to slow water movement to prevent soil transport.

Environmental law
Main article: Environmental law
Environmental laws often dictate the planning and actions that agencies take to manage watersheds. Some laws require that planning be done, others can be used to make a plan legally enforceable and others set out the ground rules for what can and cannot be done in development and planning. Most countries and states have their own laws regarding watershed management.

Those concerned about aquatic habitat protection have a right to participate in the laws and planning processes that affect aquatic habitats. By having a clear understanding of whom to speak to and how to present the case for keeping our waterways clean a member of the public can become an effective watershed protection advocate.

About the watershed management program
About Watershed Management

Watershed management is the process of creating and implementing plans, programs, and projects to sustain and enhance watershed functions that provide the goods, services and values desired by the community affected by conditions within a watershed boundary.

What IS An RCD's


Resource Conservation Districts (RCDs) are "special districts" of the state of California, set up under California law to be locally governed agencies with their own locally appointed or elected, independent boards of directors. California RCDs implement projects on public and private lands and educate landowners and the public about resource conservation. RCDs, authorized under Division 9 of the Public Resources Code, work together to conduct:

Watershed planning and management

Water conservation

Water quality protection and enhancement

Agricultural land conservation

Soil and water management on non-agricultural lands

Wildlife habitat enhancement

Wetland conservation

Recreational land restoration

Irrigation management

Conservation education

Forest stewardship

Urban resource conservation

Resource Conservation District Assistance - Training Program

The Department of Conservation and its partners offer training in a variety of topics, including the following:

Rights, roles, and responsibilities of RCDs: The provisions of Division 9 of the State Public Resources Code govern the functioning of RCDs. To help RCD directors and employees understand Division 9, training is offered in the rights, roles, and responsibilities of RCDs for implementing sound resource conservation.
Strategic planning: Division 9 urges RCDs to identify high-priority resource conservation needs within their districts and to create formal plans for how to address them. The department and its partners can assist RCDs in long-range and annual planning by training directors and employees how to develop a strategic plan using input from other agencies, landowners, and stakeholders in the district.
Grant writing and fundraising: RCDs rarely receive ongoing operating funds and must learn to raise money through grants or other means in order to carry out needed conservation work. The Department of Conservation and its partners thus offer workshops in grant writing and fundraising to train RCD board members and staff where to find support for their programs, how to write effective proposals, and how to follow up and manage grants once they are received.
Other administrative training: RCDs may also need assistance in ongoing administrative functions. Because of this, training is offered in such issues as contracting and subcontracting; employee issues, such as hiring and firing; the Brown Act and more. To request a training on a specific topic contact Jenny Di Stefano at 916-324-0774 or by email at Jenny.E.DiStefano@conservation.ca.gov


What is Watershed?

The word watershed refers to a “contiguous area draining into a single water body or a water course” or “it is a topographical area having a common drainage”. This means that the rainwater falling on an area coming within a ridgeline can be harvested and will flow out of this area thorough single point. Some refer it as a catchment area or river basin.

A watershed is like a bathtub. The watershed outlet - the mouth of a pond, lake or river- is the tub's drain. The watershed boundary is the tub's rim. The watershed's drainage system consists of a network of rivers, streams, constructed channels, stormdrains, wetlands, and the underlying groundwater.






The diagram below suggests a typical watershed that starts with small headwater streams in the higher elevations of the drainage basin. Water flows downhill from the drainage divide into larger streams, eventually joining a river. As more tributary streams join the river, the volume of water increases. This river eventually flows downstream into an even larger river at the confluence.


Purpose of the Programmes

Improving agriculture productivity.
Improving vegetative cover.
Increasing milk and horticulture production.
Increasing fodder and fuel availability.
Reducing soil erosion, runoff and nutrient loss.
Improve water availability at surface and ground water.
Increasing household income.
Enhancing quality of life among local communities.
Local institutional development through community based organizations
Ensuring institutional support by Watershed Development Department as facilitator and by NGOs for community organization and strengthening



Objectives of Watershed Development Programmes

Improve the productive potentials of selected watersheds and their associated natural resource base.
Sustainable alleviation of Poverty.
Develop and strengthen community based institutional arrangements for sustainable natural resource management
Improved skills and employment opportunities for non-farm sectors
Involvement of village communities in participatory planning, implementation, social and environmental management, maintenance of assets and to operate in a more socially inclusive manner.





Different Schemes of Project

National Watershed Development Programme for Rain fed Areas (NWDPRA):
River Valley Project (RVP)
Reclamation of Saline, Alkaline & Water logged areas
Drought Prone Area Development Programme (DPAP)
Integrated Wasteland Development Programme (IWDP)

Desert Development Programme (DDP)

Western Ghat Development Programme (WGDP)
Special Component Plan (SCP)
Tribal Sub Plan (TSP)

Karnataka Watershed Development Project (DANIDA) – IInd Phase (KWDP)

Reclamation of Saline, Alkaline & Water logged areas

World Bank Assisted Sujala Watershed Project



Various Techniques of Watershed Development

Grassland Development

Gully Plugs

Tree Plantation

Contour Bunding

Land levelling

Water Conservation Structures

Lift Irrigation Schemes

Watershed Development



GRASSLAND DEVELOPMENT

NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE : At Naigaon village Pani Panchayat carried out grassland development on 2.4 hect. out of total plot of 16 hect. Tree plantation was also included in the same area.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE: At Naigaon village where Pani Panchayat is working, the hilly area in the 16 hect. experimental plot was very undulating and sloppy. Traditional agriculture was uneconomical and farmers were getting only their seeds back and some fodder for their cattle. Such area was converted into green lush grassland. Traditional agriculture on hill slopes was totally stopped. Grassland helped in soil and water conservation. When there was heavy rainfall grass acted as a shock absorber and checked velocity of rain drops. This ultimately reduced chances of soil erosion and accelerates. This allows infiltration of water into the soil. Thus grassland development helped in soil and water conservation.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: In Maharashtra state percentage of barren land on the hill top and along the hill slope is very large. As mentioned above agriculture on this land is very uneconomical; people having such type of land and people having waste land can adopt this technique. Also this technique can be adopted on common land or government land.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: Instead of uneconomical agriculture farmers can grow grass in this area and can use that as a fodder for cattle. Farmers can go for dairy development if good quantity and quality of grass is available. Thus he can get some economic returns from the land. On common land, village as a whole can work for grassland development with the intention that this work will increase water availability in their wells and stop further degradation of the common or government land.

TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: Adoption of this technique is very simple, cost effective and this does not require any hi-tech knowledge. In a village grassland can be developed with the help of villagers themselves. Protection of the area with social fencing helps in natural regeneration of the local grasses. For social fencing villagers should come forward, discuss among themselves for development of their village and adopt method of stall feeding for their cattle. If due to certain reasons natural grass regeneration is not good then seeds of some grasses can be spread.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The results can be stated as under: 1. Soil along the hill slope and hill top is protected from erosion due to flowing water. Thus work of soil conservation is done without any special hi-tech technique. 2. Huge biomass is generated which can be used for cattle as fodder and also used as compost or as organic manure. 3. As flowing water is obstructed, rate of infiltration is increased. At Khalad village where Pani Panchayat is working, it is possible to develop zero run_off watershed. All flowing water percolates into the soil. 4. Income level from waste land increased.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: It is very difficult to stop grazing of animals. There are several reasons for it. Main thing is that people are not ready for stall feeding as it is laborious work. Also they are not bothered about erosion of the land which does not belong to them.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: In Khalad village of Pani Panchayat the land belongs to the trust thus there was no problem of grazing. In Naigaon all the area is fenced with the help of thorny agave plantation which is also used for rope making. Also meetings with the people for social fencing are needed. If people are aware about increased yield due to stall feeding they will not allow cattle to go to the grass land. This solution is adopted in Ralegan Shindi.

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESS: Factors contributing success can be listed as below: 1. Local technique, easy to adopt. 2. Low cost technique. 3. External input to the village is zero or in the form of seeds only. 4. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme.



GULLY PLUG

NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE: At Ralegan Shindi an innovative method of soil conservation is adopted and it is Gully plug.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE : Gully plug is one of the simple method of soil and water conservation. It plays an important role in soil and water conservation, when they are put in series one below the other from top to bottom of the depression.

Gullies are formed due to erosion of top soil by the flow of rain water. In course of time, a gully assumes a big shape and erosion goes on increasing. To prevent erosion, barriers or plugs of different types of material are put across the gully, at certain intervals.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: In Maharashtra state percentage of hilly and sloppy area is very large. As mentioned above soil cover in this part of land is very less; people having such type of land and people having land with gullies can adopt this technique. Also this technique can be adopted on common land or government land if concerned people agree to the proposal.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: Farmers were not getting any income from this area. Now with improved soil condition in this area they can get some income in the form of grass and income from the trees. On common land village as a whole can work for gully plugs, with the intention that this work will increase water availability in the groundwater table. And also to stop further degradation around the gully.

HOW TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: Adoption of this technique is very simple, cost effective and this does not require any hi-tech knowledge like grassland development. Construction of a plug is done mainly with the help of locally available boulders. A dry stone masonry wall of these boulders is constructed across a gully. This wall allows water to flow through it but allows soil to deposit through it, thus on the up stream side of a plug. For this type of work on common land and on government land, villagers should come forward, discuss among themselves for development of their village and adopt a method of soil and water conservation in the form of gully plugs. It was done in Ralegan Shindi and people contributed one manday per week per family for common works.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The results are as under: 1. Soil along the hill slope and hill top is protected from erosion caused due to flowing water. Thus work of soil conservation is done without any special hi-tech technique. 2. Once soil degradation is stopped biomass is generated which can be used as fodder and can be used as an organic manure. 3. Allows more time for water to percolate in the ground and thus helps in recharging the ground water table. In Ralegan Shindi rate of run-off water is decreased, which means there is infiltration of water into the ground. 4. Income level from waste land increased. 5. Silt accumulated can be used for nursery plants or can be used in the fields for increasing organic matter in the fields. In Adgaon silt is used for fields.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: For construction of a gully plug labour is required which people are ready to give; but in initial stages of the project economic conditions of the people was not good. People wanted some cost for their labour. Thus there was a problem of money. Also on common lands people were not bothered about erosion of the land which did not belong to them.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: In village Ralegan Shindi, the working agency could get funds from state government for this types of work, thus there was no problem. Also meetings with the people for work on the common land were needed. If people become aware about problems due to soil erosion, then they will not allow further soil erosion.

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESS: Factors contributing success can be said to be as under: 1. Local technique, easy to adopt. 2. Low cost technique. 3. External input to the village is zero. 4. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme. 5. Some financial assistance to the villagers from state government, in initial stage.



TREE PLANTATION ON HILL SLOPES ALONG WITH CONTOUR TRENCHING

NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE : At Ralegan Shindi an innovative method of soil conservation is adopted i.e. tree plantation on hill slope along with contour trenching.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE: At Naigaon village, the 16 hect. experimental plot developed by Pani Panchayat was very undulating and sloppy. In village Ralegan Shindi about 30% area is undulating. Soil erosion in this area was much more due to sloppy land. Along the spurs of the hill it is not possible to construct any type of structure. In this area the erosion is of the type of sheet erosion, where a thin layer of top soil is lost during rain. To avoid this phenomena, the area was converted into lush green grassland. Along with grass, the velocity of flowing water was checked by small trenches in staggered manner.

Grassland and trenches have helped in soil and water conservation. When there is heavy rainfall, grass acts as a shock absorber and checks velocity of rain drops. This ultimately reduces chances of soil erosion. When water starts flowing along the fields grass and trenches become obstruction for it. Due to the obstruction to the flowing water, velocity reduces and water is collected in the trenches. This allows infiltration of water into the soil. Thus grassland development with trenches along the hill slope helps in soil and water conservation.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: In Maharashtra state percentage of barren land on the hill top and along the hill slope is quite large. As mentioned above soil cover in this part of land is very less; and agriculture on this land is not possible. People having such type of land, along hill spur can adopt this technique. Also this technique can be adopted on common land or government land.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: Instead of uneconomical agriculture farmers can grow grass in this hilly area and can use that as a fodder for cattle. Farmers can go for dairy development if good quantity and quality of grass is available. Marginal farmers can start small primary industry of compost. Thus he can get some economic returns from the land. On common land village as a whole can work for grassland development and trenching with the intention that this work will increase water availability in their wells. Further degradation of the common or government land will stop. For soil and water conservation this activity will help. Plantation on common land will satisfy basic need of fuel wood.

HOW TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: Adoption of this technique is very simple, cost effective and this does not require any hi-tech knowledge. For trenching, first step is to mark contours on the slopes. The next step is to mark trenches along the contours. Then trenches can be dug along the contours. Width, length and depth can be decided depending upon depth of soil at that place. Spacing of trench row will depend upon slope of land. As slope increases distance bet two rows will be less and vice versa. Along the slopes grassland can be developed with the help of villagers themselves. Trees which will satisfy basic needs of a village will be planted along the down stream side of the trench. Water stored in the trench for a few days and recharge in the soil will be helpful to the trees. Protection of the area with social fencing helps in natural regeneration of the local grass and trees.

For social fencing villagers should come forward, discuss among themselves for development of their village and adopt method of stall feeding for their cattle. If due to certain reasons natural grass regeneration is not good then seeds of some grass and of the trees can be spread.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The results can be stated as under: 1. Soil along the hill slope is protected from erosion due to flowing water. Thus work of soil conservation is done without any special hi-tech technique. 2. Huge biomass is generated which can be used for cattle as fodder, can be used as an organic manure. 3. As flowing water is obstructed, rate of infiltration is increased. In Ralegan Shindi rate of run-off water is decreased, which means there is infiltration of water into the ground. This also can be seen as water levels of wells are increased. 4. Income level from waste land increased.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: It is very difficult to stop grazing and convince the farmers to convert agricultural lands into tree plantation. There are several reasons for it. Main thing is that people are not ready to wait for a long to harvest trees. Also they are not worried about erosion of the land which is not owned by them.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: In Khalad village where Pani Panchayat is working, the land belongs to the trust and so there was no problem of convincing the people and the trust could wait till harvesting of the trees. In Ralegan Shindi trenching is done on land belonging to the government and on the lands of the farmers who are having big land holdings.

In Naigaon all the area is fenced with the help of thorny agave or sisal plantation which is also used for rope making.

Also meetings with the people for awareness about the erosion is required. When people are aware of the yield after few years then implementation of the programme is easy. This aspect of tree plantation was realised in Ralegan Shindi.

Key factors in success: Factors contributing success can be as below: 1. Local technique, easy to adopt. 2. External input in to the village is zero or in the form of meagre finance for seeds only. 3. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme. 4. Huge employment generating activity. 5. Whole development considering village as a unit.

CONTOUR BUNDING

NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE : In Adgaon and Ralegan Shindi a low cost method of soil conservation is adopted i.e. Contour bunding.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE : Contour bunding is one of the simple method of soil and water conservation. Bunding is a embankment of earth. It plays an important role in soil and water conservation in the field with medium slope. In between two contours agriculture can be practisised. Along bunds trees which fixes nitrogen in to the soil are planted with grass along the bunds.

Contour bunding helps in soil and water conservation. When there is rainfall, contour bund acts as a barrier to the water flow and checks the velocity. This reduces chances of soil erosion. When water starts flowing along the fields bund becomes obstruction for it. Due to the obstruction velocity reduces and water percolates behind the bunds. This allows infiltration of water into the soil. Thus bunding on the fields with moderate slopes helps in soil and water conservation.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: In Maharashtra state percentage of barren land along the sloppy agricultural land is quite large. Due to slope, soil and nutrients erode fast which makes agriculture on this land very uneconomical. People having such type of land can adopt this technique. Also this technique can be adopted on common land or government land.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: Instead of uneconomical agriculture farmers can construct bunds along the fields and grow trees on the bunds. Marginal farmers can start small primary unit of compost with trees on the bunds and grass along the bunds can be used for cattle. Thus he can get some economic returns from the land with improved fertility. Soil and water conservation due to bunding work will increase water availability in their wells and to stop further degradation of the land. Plantation on the bunds will satisfy basic need of fuel wood, fruits and fodder.

HOW TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: Adoption of this technique is very simple and this does not require any hi-tech knowledge. For bunding first step is to mark contours on the agricultural fields. The next step is to mark contours. Then bunds can be taken along the contours. The height of the bund should be 0.3 mtr and top width 0.3 mtr. The slopes should be 1(V):1(H). Spacing of bunds will depend upon slope of land. As slope increases distance bet two rows will be less and vice versa. Along the bunds grassland can be developed along with tree plantation. Trees which will satisfy basic needs of a village can be planted along the down stream side of a bund. Water stored behind the bund for few days, infiltrates into the earth increasing well water level.

In between two bunds agriculture can be practisised. When in-between agriculture is practiced, tree plantation on bund is possible. These trees can be selected from the category that they will fix nitrogen in the soil and become useful to the crops. Trees will be useful for compost which will improve fertility of the soil.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The results can be mentioned as under: 1. Soil along the sloppy fields is protected from erosion caused by flowing water. Thus work of soil conservation is done without any special hi-tech technique. 2. Huge biomass is generated along the bunds which can be used for cattle as fodder and compost used as an organic manure. 3. As flowing water is obstructed, rate of infiltration is increased. At Adgaon village there is good recharge of groundwater. 4. Income level from eroded land increased. 5. Yield in the intercropped agriculture increases if legume plants are planted along the bund. 6. Income generation from the trees in the form of fodder, nitrogen in the soil, fruits, fuel, green manure etc.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: It is very difficult to convince people for bunding. The main reason is that people feel that land under bund goes as waste and so crop out put is reduced. The advantage of bund should be shown to the farmers.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: In Adgaon village meetings with the people were useful for contour bunding, in the area privately owned. If people are aware about increased yield and rise of water level due to contour bunding, they did all work without hesitate. This solution is also adopted in Ralegan Shindi.

The people are ready to adopt technique when they see overall increase in the crop yield due to increased water level; increased percentage of organic matter in the soil; improved fertility of the soil and reduced requirement of chemical fertiliser.

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESS: Factors contributing success can be stated as below: 1. Local technique, easy to adopt. 2. Low cost technique. 3. External input to the village is zero. 4. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme. 5. Some financial assistance to the villagers from state government. 6. Huge employment is generated. 7. Whole work is done considering village as a unit.

LAND LEVELING:



NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE : For some part of the villages Naigaon, Adgaon and Ralegan Shindi, another method of soil conservation is adopted i.e. leveling of the agricultural land.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE: At Naigaon village Pani Panchayat was having an area of 16 hect. experimental plot which was undulating and sloppy out of this, 6 hect is a steep land and remaining area of about 10 hect. was slightly sloppy. Though soil erosion in this area was not much, same action for conservation of insitu soil and water conservation was needed. The village is in the drought prone area. In some area the erosion was of the type of sheet erosion, where a thin layer of top soil was lost during rain. To avoid this phenomena, the area was converted into terraces at different contours.

Terracing or land leveling helps in soil and water conservation. When there is heavy rainfall, due to leveled fields velocity of water is reduced. This ultimately reduces chances of soil erosion. When water starts flowing slowly along the fields infiltration augments ground water table.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: The people who have undulating land can adopt this technique. Because unless the land is leveled, efficient water application to the crops is not possible.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: Conservation of insitu soil and water can only boost up the production. Irregular, uneven lands can't hold soil moisture and so land leveling is necessary.

HOW TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: Stripping of the mounts and filling the depressions is the main object. Besides terracing the lands with required height of soil and stone bunds at suitable contours are necessary. For marking contours some survey work is necessary and it can be done by trained personnels.

The land between two bunds is leveled with the help of bullocks or by some machines. Upper part of the field is excavated and filled in the depressions. Important part is that a waterway is required to provided to drain out accumulated water. These drains can be provided on excavated side.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The observations are as under: 1. Soil along the sloppy fields is protected from erosion due to flowing water. Thus work of soil conservation is done without much technical knowledge. 2. Huge biomass is generated along the bunds which can be used for cattle as fodder and compost used as a organic manure. 3. As flowing water is obstructed, rate of infiltration is increased. At Adgaon, Ralegan Shindi and Naigaon there is good recharge of groundwater. There is substantial increase in moisture retention in subsoil. 4. Income level from moderately sloppy and eroded land increased. 5. Income generation from the trees in the form of fodder, fruits, fuel, green manure etc.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: It is very difficult to convince people for leveling. People feel that land under embankment goes as a waste. They are not yet aware of the multiple gains from small sacrifices.

In some cases if soil depth is less, inferior quality of soil or even rock gets exposed.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: If people became aware about increased yield due to increase in water level due to land leveling, they do all work willingly. This solution is adopted in Ralegan Shindi and in Naigaon.

In cases where soil depth is less, leveling is done with small widths, it is more or less similar to contour bunding. This is done at Adgaon.

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESS: Factors contributing to the success are: 1. Low cost technique. 2. External input to the village is less. Some times it is in the form of a tractor for removing and relaying earth. 3. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme. 4. Some financial assistance to the villagers from state government and from voluntary agency working there. 5. Huge employment is generated if work done manually. 6. Whole work is done considering village as a unit.



Water Conservation Structures
NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE : In villages Naigaon, Adgaon, Ralegan Shindi water conservation structures are built to store water for protective irrigation of the fields.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE : Water conservation is important from the agricultural point of view. For stable agriculture, storage of water is an essential part of the watershed development. Targeted food production can be had only if crop water relationship is fulfilled at appropriate time.

Water conservation works are basically small dams with height not exceeding 3-5 mtr. The object of water conservation structures is to create a barrier to the flow of water and to impound water against this barrier and make use of it through the wells on the down stream side. The use of such structures is to provide water for drinking, domestic use and agriculture etc.

Water conservation structures can be divided into certain groups as under: 1. Earthen water conservation works. 2. Masonry water conservation works with or without gates. 3. Underground dam as a water conservation works. 4. Timber crib water conservation works.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: Today in Maharashtra state percentage of rainfed agricultural land is about 87%. In most cases there is loss of yield due to shortage of one or two waterings. In Maharashtra state average rainfall is about 1000 mm, still the situation is difficult because showers are not evenly spread. In rainy season of four months, rainy days are only 25 to 30. For remaining days there is dry period. As part of Maharashtra is in semi arid region, during monsoon the whether is hot.

So considering these realities government is executing these works as an infrastructural development. Also in some area people came together for building of small dams.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: To increase national income, government is doing water conservation works at various places. Some times dependence only on government does not help. In villages like Ralegan Shindi, Adgaon and Naigaon local NGO with the help of local people were engaged in construction of water conservation structures. People contributed their free labour and some financial contribution for this work. People are doing these things only because they realised that with a little input of water their agriculture can be stabilise and they will get water whenever they require. The drinking water problem is automatically solved.

HOW TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: Adoption of this technique is not that simple as is in the case of all earlier techniques. Some times it requires hi_tech knowledge. Construction of a water conservation structure requires technical person to prepare design and estimates of the structures. For planning and execution local people's involvement is most important.

At first topographical survey of the area is necessary. For this work local people with a little training of surveying are useful. Then the location, height of the structure can be decided after discussions with the local people. Then design and estimate part follows. After getting approval to the technical part of the structure, actual construction work is done. This work can be done by local people and local artisans. For design and calculation part of the structure technical help is required. This part can be taught to the young local persons who have some background of mathematics and science. For earthen structures work can be done by local people or through contractors if the magnitude of work is large i.e. requiring more than a year.

For timber crib dam, which is a new improved local technique, some training is necessary. For masonry structure with or without gates local mason can do all the work under guidance of technical person. For underground dam local people can do the work.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The results are: 1. Allows more time for water to percolate in the ground and thus helps in recharging the ground water table. In Ralegan Shindi wells nearby the water conservation structures are full even during summer. 2. Income level from semi arid agriculture land is increased. 3. Silt accumulated in the structure can be used for nursery plants or can be used in the fields for increasing organic matter in the fields. In Adgaon silt is used for fields. 4. Drought proofing work and problem of drinking water solved. 5. Stabilised agriculture as water is available whenever it is required.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: It is very difficult to convince people for construction of water conservation structure of their own because individual person can't bear large cost. Loss of area due to the submergence, under dam seat and flanks pose another problem. Such works can be better handled by Voluntary Organisations. People may however take help of government for such works. For works having their water spread within the banks, people can execute them either through contribution or free labour.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: In Adgaon village people contributed some amount and some free labour was offered by the villagers. This was done in Ralegan Shindi also. Government did some work as a infrastructural activity.

If height of structure is limited then water remains within the banks of the stream Thus there is no problem of submergence. In Adgaon and Ralegan Shindi the submergence of the structures remains within the banks of a stream.

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESS: Factors contributing success can be listed as below: 1. Some structures are simple structure which do not require any high cost and hi_tech technique and they are very easy for construction. 2. External input to the village is less. 3. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme. 4. Some financial assistance to the villagers from state government. 5. Earthen works are labour oriented and provide gainful employment to the local people in off seasons. Skilled works provide employment to artisans in the village. 6. Whole work is done considering village as a unit.

Lift Irrigation Scheme

NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE : In some of the villages where water conservation structures were already done, Pani Panchayat carried out lift irrigation schemes to provide water to the fields at higher level. In this work, the distribution part is important.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE : Input of water is important from the agricultural point of view. Some times in some places water can't be provided to the fields as the level of the field is higher than that the source of water. In this case water is required to be lifted at a convenient higher spot from which it can be supplied to the fields under command. Pani Panchayat has completed about 52 lift irrigation schemes in Purandhar Taluka and around, irrigating about 1232 hect. in all. For lifting of water some energy is required for pump operation. It may be electric power or diesel. There are many methods of lift irrigation schemes depending upon the type of mechanism to lift the water. In old days water was lifted with the help of a person or a pair of bullocks which was mainly for an individual need. But now a days schemes for large areas and group of farmers are necessary.

Water can be lifted from wells, rivers, irrigation tanks etc. and conveyed through pipes made of cement, steel, PVC etc.

Lift irrigation schemes done by Pani Panchayat are with a principle that water is a natural common property. Every person in the village has a right to use it. In all schemes of Pani Panchayat water is shared equitably on the basis of 0.2 hect. per person and 1.0 hect. per family.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: The farmers whose fields are situated at higher level but have a source of water nearby can adopt this technique.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: The fields which are at higher level and for which water by flow irrigation will not possible, have no other alternative but the lift irrigation scheme.

In different villages of Pani Panchayat local NGOs with the help of local people were engaged in implementation of lift irrigation schemes. People contributed their free labour and about 20% cost of the scheme. People are doing all these things only because they are realised that with a little input of water their agriculture can stabilise and they will get water whenever they require. Drinking water problem is also solved concurrently.

HOW TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: Adoption of this technique is not quite simple. Planning, designing and execution are to be done through knowledgeable technical person. Participation of beneficiaries is quite necessary and if labour component is done by them, saving in cost to the extent of 20% is possible. The remaining amount can be had either through government as a subsidy or as a loan from the banks, repayable in 10 to 15 years.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The results of the lift irrigation scheme are: 1. Increase in food production and thereby increase in income level as the land turns into irrigated land. 2. Removal of drought conditions and no problem of drinking water. 3. Stabilised agriculture as water is available whenever it is required.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: It is not easy to convince the farmers to adopt a technique of lift irrigation scheme. The cost of the scheme is very high. For individual benefit a farmer will move heaven and earth. But for a group of farmers, his approach is not that friendly and cooperative.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: It is the awareness that will solve the problem. An individual person can't bear the cost of the scheme. He has to co-operate with others for his benefits. Pani Panchayat could pursued the people in this manner. After completion of the completion of lift irrigation scheme, beneficiaries come together once in a month for taking certain decisions. This enhances the community spirit.

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESS: Factors contributing success can be listed as below: 1. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme. 2. Some financial assistance to the villagers from state government, advances from the bank. 3. This work is not labour oriented. But when the scheme is completed and brought in operation, it will provides gainful employment to all the persons coming under the preview of the scheme. 4. Whole work is done considering village as a unit, as some part of the village does not receive benefits of other soil and water conservation works.



WATERSHED DEVELOPMENT
NAME OF THE TECHNIQUE : In villages Naigaon, Adgaon, Ralegan Shindi watershed development is done for overall development of a village.

NATURE AND PURPOSE OF THE TECHNIQUE : Watershed development is important for the overall development of a village. The physical and climatic conditions in India vary to a large extent. Stable agriculture was a dream when watershed development was started. Now it is not the situation. People have realised that they can survive only of they follow this technique.

Watershed development involves all the techniques mentioned above in integrated manner. The techniques can be summerised as : Grassland development, Gully Plugs, Tree plantation and contour trenching on hill tops and slopes, Contour bunding, Water conservation structures, Lift irrigation schemes, Land leveling etc.

Purpose of watershed development: Main purpose use of local resources for betterment of the villages with less external input . Watershed development has raised living standard of the people in villages.

WHO WILL ADOPT THIS TECHNIQUE: In Maharashtra only 13% of the cropped area is getting irrigation water, thus remaining 87% area is dependent on rain only. To increase water availability in these villages by insitu methods of soil and water conservation all villages with the help of government and N.G.O.s can adopt this technique for self sufficiency. Maharashtra state government has also started work on watershed development.

WHY THIS TECHNIQUE SHOULD BE ADOPTED: Timely water supply to the farms is an essential requirement. Larger flow irrigation projects can't satisfy this need for all villages and so planning of village as a unit and work on watershed development for sustainable agriculture appears the only way-out for rural development.

People from rural area can get economical returns from agricultural lands, waste lands, lands along hill slopes. They can grow grass in hilly area and can use that as a fodder for cattle. Farmers can go for dairy development. Marginal farmers and landless can start small primary industry like that of compost.

On common land village as a whole can work for grassland development and trenching with the intention that this work will increase water availability in their wells and to stop further degradation of the common or government land. For soil and water conservation this activity will help. Plantation on common land will satisfy basic need of fuel wood, fruits, fodder etc.

In short by adoption of this technique there is assured drought proofing, stabilised agriculture and improvement in living standard.

HOW TO ADOPT THE TECHNIQUE: For adoption of this technique first step for the villagers should come together and decide what are the plus and minus points of this technique with reference to concerned village. As watershed development is not a single point technique, the priorities of different works need to decided. Important part in this type of work is to identify appropriate types of works under the existing conditions. Right choice of work and place ensures the success. Say for example tree plantation is an important activity of watershed development then choice of the species is an important part. We have to choose trees which will satisfy basic needs of a village, like fruit, fodder, fuel, improvement of soil etc.

RESULTS AFTER ADOPTION OF A TECHNIQUE: The results of successful implementation are: 1. Soil along the sloppy fields is protected from erosion. Thus work of soil conservation is done without much special hi- tech technique. Increase in the fertility of soil reducing overall requirement of fertilizer. 2. Biomass generated can be used for cattle as fodder and compost as an organic manure thus requirement of chemical fertilizer is reduced. 3. As flowing water is obstructed, rate of infiltration is increased. At Adgaon village there is good recharge of groundwater table. 4. Income level from eroded land increased when treated with different techniques. 5. Income generation from the trees in the form of fodder, nitrogen in the soil, fruits, fuel, green manure etc. 6. In Adgaon and Ralegan Shindi villages crop yield increased by about 150%. 7. Drought proofing conditions created in a village. 8. At some places there supporting activities of income generation came up, like Dairy, Food processing, Poultry etc. 9. In villages employment generation increased. People in the developed villages offered employment to the people in the nearby villages. This happened in all the three villages under study.

PROBLEMS IN ADOPTION: It is very difficult to convince people for watershed development work. People are not aware of their hidden potential. It is a general impression that development activity is a job of government and people have no say in it. People are not ready to spend money because of their limited resources. In initial stages, there are doubts about success and so the people are hesitant.

SOLUTION TO THE PROBLEM: In Adgaon village people contributed some amount and some free labour was offered by the villagers. This was done in Ralegan Shindi also. In Ralegan Shindi people contributed about 10% of the total cost. In Pani Panchayat lift irrigation schemes people contributed 20% of the total cost of the scheme. Government did some work in some villages.

Though overall cost required for watershed development is large, it is possible to prepare a phased programme with priorities, after discussions with the beneficiaries.

KEY FACTORS IN SUCCESS: Factors contributing success are: 1. Local techniques, easy to adopt. 2. Some techniques are low cost. 3. External input to the village is minimum. 4. Participation of villagers in each and every stage of implementation of the programme. 5. Some financial assistance to the villagers from state government and from voluntary agencies working there. 6. Employment generation during implementation period and thereafter people got fully engaged in agriculture activities in their own fields. Their gain is sufficient for their livelihood. 7. Whole work is done considering village as a unit.